Bhaumakara Queens of Odisha

Bhaumakara Queens of Odisha

They ruled because it was their right

Who They Were

The origins of the Bhaumakaras is unclear. It is speculated that the Bhaumas were originally an aboriginal tribe occupying the hilly tracts in northern Odisha. The dates of their reign are still not known with certainty but it is believed they ruled between the 7th and 9th century CE. The long reign of the Bhaumakaras gave continuity of administration and relative peace to the realm. The first three rulers were Buddhist and the later rulers were Hindu. An interesting feature is that the Buddhist kings of this dynasty had Hindu wives. Both religions were well patronised in terms of grants for building temples and viharas. 

The Bhaumakaras are said to have retained elements of their tribal culture which allowed for female rulers. Over the two hundred years that the dynasty reigned, six queens sat on the throne and other powerful queens were influential consorts of kings.

As is obvious from the six queens we know of this dynasty, women had a high status in society. These queens acted independently in their own right, they were not acting as regents for male rulers unlike other dynasties. Of the six queens, five were dowagers (widows of previous kings) and one was a king’s daughter. All were highly educated and cultured. 

Each was known to have built temples and were patrons of the arts. 

The Bhaumakara dynasty patronised all religions and sects in their land. Among the rulers were Buddhists, Shiva bhaktas, Vaishnavas, Shakti upasakas. They gave grants and patronized other religions irrespective of their personal beliefs. This dynasty was very unusual in that many royal couples professed different religions from each other with no rancour.

Our source for medieval Odisha is inscriptions which have been meticulously recorded by all the rulers.

Pattachitra painting

Source: Wikipedia

The Six Queens of the Bhumakaras

Tribhuvanamahadevi (r 846-850 CE) ascended the throne under rather unusual circumstances. After the death of her husband Shantikaradeva I, their son Shubhakaradeva III became the ruler. However he died soon after. The next in line was his young son Subhakaradeva II, considered too young to rule. Thus his grandmother Tribhuvanamahadevi took over the reigns of the kingdom. She ruled in her own right, not as a regent for her grandson. Much like other queens such as the Kakatiya Queen Rudramadevi of Warangal and the Nayaka Queen Mangammal of Madurai, Tribhuvanamahadevi stepped in to steady the kingdom, and rule instead of her minor grandson until he came of age.

She was a daughter of Rajamalla I of the Western Ganga dynasty that ruled the region around Mysuru. It is recorded that initially she was reluctant to rule but was persuaded by the courtiers. What is interesting is that she was deemed by the people to have an authentic claim to the throne with no other man contending for it. It is speculated that she would have been between thirty-six to forty years of age at her coronation, although she was considered to be ‘elderly’ by the standards of the time!

The Dhenkanal copper plate charter mentions the grants of land she made to a village and another mentions a grant she made on the occasion of a lunar eclipse.

She was an efficient administrator who managed to keep her kingdom safe from enemies and came down heavily on rebellion. She took up the title of Paramavaishnavi. As a powerful ruler she maintained an army of 30,000 soldiers. Hadul-al-alam, a Persian work by an unknown author and geographer, mentions Tribhuvanamadevi as ‘a queen who does not consider anyone superior to herself’.

She might have had some assistance from her father Rajamalla I since the administration, and perhaps the financial condition of the Bhaumakaras, was precarious after quelling earlier Rashtrakuta and Pala invasions into Bhaumakara territory.

Tribhuvanamahadevi gave up the throne when her grandson Subhakaradeva II came of age.

The next queen to ascend the Bhaumakara throne was Prithvimahadevi who assumed the title of Tribhuvanamahadevi II. Her reign must have been very short since it was disputed by her nephews. She ruled in her own right, although in most other dynasties the throne would have gone to her husband’s nephews. 

A somewhat singular occurrence recorded in copper plate in Baud says that she gave grants to a common woman who petitioned that she wanted to build two temples in her father’s memory. It is noteworthy that such instances are usually not given much prominence in history books but to me it shows the queen had agency to take decisions, and the one that she took here was to help another woman, a commoner at that. 

Temples were not just places of worship but also centres of commerce and art. They had a snowball effect of drawing people from kilometers around, and because of this they attracted prosperity and spread culture. They did not just establish religion. Thus when Tribhuvanamahadevi II acceeded to the woman’s request for a grant, she was also investing in the local area’s commerce and arts, boosting its economy.

Gaurimahadevi had an extremely short reign but was able to maintain peace and order. She was succeeded by her daughter Dandimahadevi.

Dandimahadevi was a good administrator and was able to be an effective and powerful ruler. She kept her kingdom free from invasions. The mention of precious gems and pearls in her grants shows the prosperity of her reign.

None of the inscriptions of this ruler discovered so far, including the Patlinga copper plate in April 2006, that eulogise her rule and administrative capability mention her marital status. The Bhaumakara dynasty appears to have a singular tradition that enabled an unmarried princess to ascend to the throne and prove to be a capable ruler.

When Dandimahadevi died a premature death, she was succeeded by her step-mother Vakulamahadevi. There is a record of a grant of a village by her. Not much else is known.

Dharmamahadevi was the last known ruler of the Bhaumakara dynasty. Her rule is not significant.

The queens of the Bhaumakara dynasty kept up the tradition of commissioning inscriptions on copper plates, a valuable source of information to us today on this important dynasty in Odisha. 

Education is almost always the common point among women rulers who successfully overcome petty court politics, quell rebellion, protect their realm against invasions and yet are excellent administrators whose subjects are content and have armies who are willing to die for them. An unusual dynasty like the Bhaumakaras had rulers who had the position as a matter of course and because the throne was legitimately theirs, irrespective of whether they were men or women. Quite exceptional, that.

Ref:

Bhauma Art and Architecture of Orissa by Dr. Krishna Ch Panigrahi

From Obscurity to Light by Devika Rangachari

History of Odisha (From earliest times to 1434 AD) by Dr. Manas Kumar Das

Orissa Review 2006 - The Patlinga Copper Plate Grant Inscription of Dandi Mahadevi by SN Girish

#BlogchatterA2Z     https://www.theblogchatter.com/

A word about BlogchatterA2Z - This is an annual event during which I have taken up the challenge of blogging on Women in Indian History starting with A and ending in Z during the month of April, 2021. Here then is B - The unusual Bhaumakara Queens of Orissa. Drop in everyday to read my posts on other interesting women as I work my way down the alphabet to Z!

Ahilyabai Holkar

The much-remembered beloved queen of Malwa

 

As Mughal rule receded after Aurangzeb’s death and its weaknesses became obvious, the Marathas stamped their power and influence all over India in the 18th century under Peshwa Balaji Bajirao. Several Maratha chiefs (Holkar, Scindia, Gaekwad and other sardars) were given charge of various parts of the kingdom due to their performance in military campaigns. Each of these provinces became centres of polity, art and governance. 

Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar

Ahilyabai (1725 - 1795 CE) is a rare female ruler in the 18th century remembered today for her excellent governance. Her state was considered the best governed state in India of her time. She ascended the Holkar throne in Malwa by sheer circumstance. Ahilyabai’s husband Khanderao Holkar was killed in the battle of Kumher, Rajasthan in 1754. Twelve years later her father-in-law Malhar Rao, the ruler, also died. Ahilyabai’s son Malerao was installed at the throne but he was mentally ill and died soon afterwards. The mantle of ruling now fell on Ahilyabai’s shoulders in 1767.

Early years

Ahilyabai’s father Mankoji Shinde was patil (headman) of the village of Chonde in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. He took the unusual step for the time of ensuring his daughter learnt to read and write, attributes that stood her in good stead later in life.

Malharrao Holkar stopped in Chonde on his way to Pune from Malwa. He was very taken in by the young Ahilyabai’s personality and demeanour and resolved to have his son marry her. In good time the births of her son and her daughter Muktabai completed the family. Ahilyabai’s forward thinking was apparent when in due time she took the unusual of step of having her daughter marry a poor but brave man Yashwantrao who put up a fight against dacoits.

On the demise of his son and grandson who were to rule after him, Malhar Rao resolved to educate Ahilyabai in statecraft. He was convinced of her merit and knew the state would be in safe hands with Ahilyabai on the throne. Malhar Rao trained her in diplomatic and military matters. Even while he ruled Malhar Rao ensured Ahilyabai had practical experience in these areas with her deep involvement in the affairs of the state.

Ahilyabai’s rule

All this experience made Ahilyabai a seasoned decision-maker when she ascended the throne. She ruled for 30 years and brought prosperity and peace to the Holkar territory. She set an example by her personal simple lifestyle, donating over Sixteen crore rupees of her personal wealth to the country's treasury.

One of her immediate tasks, not resolved fully by any previous ruler, was to settle the hill tribals who regularly made destructive forays into the kingdom. She did this by offering them avenues for livelihood and a settled life. 

Indore was developed into one of the foremost cities in India. Ahilyabai ranks very high as an administrator too. She was able to keep invasions away from her realm, provide good and clean administration and was seen to be just. She was very clear on governance and provided a mechanism that got the work done without fear or favour. Her genuine aim was the increased prosperity of her subjects which endeared her to them unlike several other rulers. 

Building anew, Rebuilding temples

As artisans and craftsperson flocked to Maheswar, it turned into a major textile weaving centre. Maheswari textiles were known for their finesse and vibrantly aesthetic weaves. This tradition continues even today.

Ahilyabai is also remembered for the architecture she constructed and maintained through the length and breadth of India. The four jyotirlingas (Kashi Vishwanath in Varanasi, Trimbakeswar in Nashik, Kedarnath in Rudraprayag, Grishneswar in Aurangabad), the sapta puris (Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Varanasi, Kanchi, Ujjain, Dwaraka), four dhams (Badrinath, Puri, Dwaraka and Rameswaram), several other temples, numerous resthouses, water tanks all over India are ancient structures that she renovated or built anew. They are testament to her piety and that she viewed India, in spite of all political divisions, as one whole. 

The famous temple of Somnath had been repeatedly destroyed by invaders for centuries. Ahilyabai repaired the temple. Her’s was the sixth attempt after several rulers and rich merchants rebuild the temple every time it was destroyed.

In Varanasi also she rebuilt several important destroyed temples. The ghats we see there today descending to the Ganga are built by Ahilyabai Holkar. 

Ahilyabai may have taken up this extensive temple building activity, much of it with her personal finances, to solidify her position in the Maratha confederacy. But there is no denying the fact that her personal interest and piety also played a major role in reconstructing and building new structures. She took care to not encroach upon other religious structures and left them well alone. 

India Post, Government of India, 

GODL-India, via Wikimedia Commons

Her legacy

Ahilyabai’s various acts of charity to the underprivileged, constantly watching for the welfare of her citizens were hallmarks of a good ruler. They extended her influence, as also that of the Maratha rule, all over India. It is no wonder that her 30 year rule is considered a golden era in the Malwa region.  

Ahilyabai overcame the prevalent 18th century bias against females by demonstrating how good governance and exemplary conduct is not decided by gender. She was a strong administrator who ruled by dharma and was ahead of her times by taking a keen interest in industrialisation, to the extent possible for the times. 13 August 2022 marked her 227th death anniversary.

Ref:

Women, Gender and Art in Asia c.1500-1900. Edited by Melia Belli Bose

Image attribution:

Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

 #BlogchatterA2Z     https://www.theblogchatter.com/

A word about BlogchatterA2Z - This is an annual event during which I have taken up the challenge of blogging on Women in Indian History starting with A and ending in Z during the month of April, 2021. Here then is A - Ahilyabai Holkar. Drop in everyday to read my posts on other interesting women as I work my way down the alphabet to Z!

Aatukuri Molla - People's Favourite Ramayana in Telugu

Molla is considered among the greatest poets in Telugu literature although only one work of hers, Ramayanam, is known to us. Until a few decades back it was studied as a text book by school children who learnt it by heart. 

Regional versions of the Ramayana

The enduring appeal of the Ramayana through the centuries shows the common thread that runs through the cultural life of India. Scholars opine there are about 300 regional variations and iterations of the epic. Women have written many of these which are very popular and are referenced in everyday language and the arts. While Chandravati’s version of the Ramayana in Bangla is justly renowned, Molla’s Telugu Ramayanam is equally an element of daily life in Telugu speaking areas even today.

Molla’s childhood

Aatukuri Molla (1440 - 1530 CE) was born during the Vijayanagara rule in Kadapa, now in the Rayalaseema district of Andhra Pradesh. She was the daughter of a potter Keshava Setti whose wife died soon after childbirth.  

Keshava Setti and his wife were devotees of Srikantha Malleswara of Srisailam and named their daughter after the deity’s favoured flower Molla, the Jasmine. In their village they were loved and respected for their generosity and the help they extended to all. Due to this goodwill they had earned, when Keshava Setti found it difficult to bring up his daughter all alone the village got together to help him with the child. 

Molla grew up to be studious and quiet. She was educated in the village school. Even as a youngster Molla showed precocious interest in prayer and spent unusual stretches of time in the temple. When she was fourteen Keshava Setti took her to his guru at Srisailam to be initiated into the religious way of life. The guru counselled him to give Molla all the freedom to choose her own path and that she would be well-respected for her devotion. When they returned home Keshava Setti allowed her to pursue her passion for learning and prayer. 

How Molla wrote her Ramayana

At her village temple one day Molla stated that as she meditating, Sri Rama appeared to her and asked her to write the Ramayana. When she told the priest about this he immediately procured palm leaves, stylus and other equipment for her.  

She set to work and completed the Ramayana in six cantos or kanda, from the Bala Kanda to the Yuddha Kanda. Bala Kanda is the first canto or book of the Ramayana which narrates the birth and childhood of Sri Rama. Yuddha Kanda is the sixth canto which deals with the war that Rama and his compatriots waged against Ravana, and rescued Sita. This is naturally the longest section of Molla's Ramayana since the epic battle is the core of every heroic epic. Scholars consider Molla’s narration of the Sundara Kanda to be unsurpassed in the whole gamut of Telugu literature. Sundara Kanda is known for its poetic description of objects, places and people. 

What is unique about Molla’s version

Literary scholars consider Molla’s Ramayanam to be a poem of considerable excellence and literary merit.

Molla drew upon her years of study and knowledge to write her version of the Ramayana. She undertook the task so that common people would get to know not just the story but also the important values in the epic. With this audience in mind she used language that is simple and easy to understand. She commented in the text that works in regional languages should stand on their own merit and not lean on Sanskrit. Not surprisingly, Molla’s Ramayana has elegant Telugu and not high-sounding Sanskrit.

From her work it is obvious that she knew of other poets who had also written on the Ramayana. She was very aware of her limitation of not being a classical scholar, but her advantage was her years of study and her devotion. However, she credits all her work to the grace of the lord of Gopavaram, her home town.

Molla did not faithfully follow the Valmiki Ramayana but added and deleted portions to make it her own. She began by 'paying her respects to Sri Ramachandra, the Trinity, several other deities and finally Saraswati, for Her power over words and meanings' as Nabaneeta Dev Sen notes. Molla mentioned her gurus with respect and thankfulness at the beginning of her work. She departed from tradition by not dedicating it to the king Krishnadeva Raya which was contrary to the usual practice. Instead her dedication was to her chosen deity Srikantha Malleswara.

Molla described Ayodhya's commerce, its armed forces and goings-on at the battlefield in great detail, adhering to the classic epic narration.

Her belief in the efficacy of chanting Rama’s name was her reason for writing the Ramayana. It’s her clear and simple style imbued with a native flavour which attracts readers to her work to this day.

She used colloquial language. Her aim was for her version of the Ramayana to be read and to bring solace to ordinary people. Her trust was well placed, Molla Ramayanam is among the most read and quoted versions of Ramayana in Telugu.

India Post, Government of India

Molla’s well-earned fame

Not just in the present, even at the time she wrote it Molla Ramayanam became so popular for being easily relatable that Molla’s fame reached the emperor Krishnadeva Raya. Being a writer himself, he was able to appreciate her craft and asked her to appear in court.

At court she was received with all due honour but also had to face the questions of the famed ashtha diggajas, the eight literary luminaries of the Vijayanagara court. The one questioning her was Tenali Ramakrishna, an author of several literary works.

Her answers showed her presence of mind and depth of knowledge. Her poetic talent was tested in court when she was asked to compose on a theme within a few minutes. Her poem floored everybody. She was given the title ‘Kavi Ratna’ and presented gold.

Later life

Molla returned to her village, entrusted her Ramayanam and the gold to the village temple and left for Srisailam where she remained until the end of her life. She lived the life of an ascetic, performing austerities. She was always available for seekers who wanted advice. Molla died in 1530 at the age of ninety. 

Molla channelled all her learning and devotion into her one literary work Ramayanam. Such was the superior tenor and spiritual quality of her poetry that it has bridged the gap between being a classical literary work and well-loved poetry that is intricately woven into people’s daily lives. Not often do writers and poets encompass both high literature and popular adoration so completely.

References - 

1. The Ramayana in Telugu and Tamil - A Comparative Study by CR Sarma

2. http://english.kadapa.info/molla-the-saint-poetess-of-kadapa-district/

3. Great Women of India - Edited by Swami Madhavananda and Ramesh Chandra Majumdar

4. https://archive.org/details/MollaRamayanamu/mode/2up

5. Rewriting the Ramayana - Nabaneeta Dev Sen

Velu Nachiyar - Sivaganga's Queen who fought the British

 Resistance in India to foreign rule

Velu Nachiyar (1730-1796) the third ruler and queen of Sivaganga, in present-day Tamil Nadu, was among the early royalty to put up armed resistance against British rule in India. Another Indian queen who ruled nearly a century earlier and also did not allow foreign powers, the Portuguese, to gain a foothold on Indian soil was Abbakka Chowta of Ullal in the 16th century. And of course a queen who embarked on the same mission against the British, less than a century after Velu Nachiyar, was Lakshmibai of Jhansi.

The spark ignited by the spirited fight of Velu Nachiyar and her compatriots, the Marudu brothers, against the British inspired the common people to also take up arms against foreign rule. The brothers were hanged for their efforts, but the fact is that sporadic resistance efforts were on from when the first European powers tried to expand from their initial mercantile activities to exerting political influence over local rulers in India. The First War of Independence of 1857 was the stage at which many of the rulers of the time decided to act together, not individually, to have a greater impact.

Velu Nachiyar’s rule in Sivaganga

Velu Nachiyar became the de facto ruler after the death of her husband Muthu Vaduganatha Peria Oodaya Thevar and his first wife Gowri Nachiyar in 1780. His death was the successful culmination of a plot by the Nawab of Arcot to get rid of him. 

India Post, Government of India

Upbringing as heir to the throne

It seemed like Velu Nachiyar’s upbringing was tailored for this very role she would play in later life. As the sole daughter of the ruler of Ramanathapuram (also known as Ramanad) she was given a wholistic education. She was tutored extensively in scholastics and became proficient in several languages - Tamil, French, English, Urdu, Malayalam and Telugu. She even travelled to France for some medical intervention. 

Velu Nachiyar’s education included the study of classical Tamil works. She also trained in martial arts and in fighting with weapons such as the valari, a traditional lethal throwing weapon. All this education was customary for the heir to the throne and her gender made no difference. Thus she was no helpless queen but one whose confidence was bolstered with both theoretical knowledge and practical experience.

Velu Nachiyar became Vaduganatha Thevar’s second wife at the age of fifteen in 1746. The couple soon had a daughter named Vellachi Nachiyar. Velu Nachiyar took an active role in the administration of the kingdom as Vaduganatha Thevar trusted her managerial and diplomatic acumen.

Political Background

By the late eighteenth century European traders - English, French, Dutch, Danish, Portuguese - were vying for favourable trading terms from the local rulers in peninsular India. At the time South India was a chess board in which diverse pawns made their moves for the better part of a century. The  English, the French and to a lesser extent, the Portuguese were the Europeans trying to secure their mercantile fortunes. The Danes who had a few godowns for their merchandise did not expand as much territorially. 

The British and the French duplicated their war against each other in Europe at the time by aligning with rulers in India against each other. Thus Hyder Ali and the French came to the aid of Velu Nachiyar of Sivagangai against the Marathas and the English who wanted to annex her kingdom.  

Vaduganatha Thevar granted commercial facilties in his territory to the Dutch. This was after the British had earlier rejected a similar offer from him. However, now the British were uneasy about this arrangement in Sivaganga with a rival European trader. Besides, they wanted to force Sivaganga to pay tribute to their ally the Nawab of Arcot.

Opposing powers in the area

Both Mohammad Ali Khan Wallajah the Nawab of Arcot, and the ruler of Pudukottai were British allies. The local chieftains, palaigar, in the area took a stand against the oppressive taxes levied on them by the Nawab, and allied themselves with Hyder Ali in the 3rd Mysore War. The people decided to oppose the British, who were an arrogant power. To make matters worse the British has put an embargo in place that led to shortage of essentials. 

Vaduganatha Thevar was well aware of the covetous ways of the English and kept them at arm’s length, refusing to make any concessions for them. The British were in turn aware of the strength of the Sivaganga army and of the Maruthu brothers who were in charge of it. In June 1772 they decided upon attacking Vaduganatha Thevar from two sides led by two generals, Joseph Smith from the east and Benjour from the west. Vaduganatha Thevar had also made his preparations to counter the attack. He decided to take a stand in the forested area of Kalayar Koil.

First the British troops occupied Sivaganga. Then Benjour and his troops took over Kalayar Koil. Vaduganatha Thevar and his army put up a valiant fight but he died on the battlefield on 27 June 1772. Velu Nachiyar is also reputed to have fought bravely in the battle.

Velu Nachiyar and her daughter fled to Virupakshi in Dindigul district. There they were joined by the Marudu brothers. Soon, the brothers returned to Sivaganga to organise a rebellion. Velu Nachiar wrote to Hyder Ali of Mysore who was a sworn enemy of the British, met him and decided to join forces against the British East India Company.

Velu Nachiyar formed a women’s battalion ‘Udayal Padai’ in her army. It was very motivated and well trained. Kuyyili, the commander in this battalion and a close associate of Velu Nachiyar became known for her brave martyrdom while blowing up the British ammunition stock at the fort of Sivaganga.

In 1780 the combined armies of Sivaganga and Mysuru defeated the joint forces of the Nawab of Arcot and the British and reestablished the throne of Sivaganga. 

Velu Nachiyar’s rule in Sivaganga

Velu Nachiyar ruled from 1780. It is speculated she was on the Sivaganga throne until 1790. Vengum Peria Wodaya Thevar, husband of Vellachi Nachiyar, succeeded to the throne. In time it became obvious that he was a ruler in name only, the actual powers behind the throne were the Marudu brothers.

In 1793 Vellachi Nachiyar and her infant daughter died of an illness. This affected Velu Nachiyar profoundly and her own health deteriorated.

Vengum Peria Wodaya Thevar married Muthathal, daughter of one of the Marudu brothers. To stamp their authority the brothers captured the fort of Sivaganga. This turn of events was a further blow to Velu Nachiyar. She developed a heart ailment.

Velu Nachiyar decided to have surgery in France and it was performed successfully. She returned to Sivaganga six months later. However she passed away in Virupakshi on 25 December 1796.

The legacy of Velu Nachiyar

Velu Nachiyar’s fight was not just for herself or her kingdom but was also that of the common man, the palaigar and the Marudu brothers fighting against oppressive taxes and other atrocities of the British and their allies. 

At the time of Velu Nachiyar’s rule, India saw the initial rumblings of a concerted attempt to oppose the British and not succumb to their authoritarian tactics. Indians were not completely successful in their endeavour at the time for several reasons yet they did not give up without a fight. Velu Nachiyar’s fight was one more step towards emboldening Indians to gather strength and continue the struggle for freedom.

References -

https://sivaganga.nic.in/tourism/eminent-personalities/

South Indian Rebellion - K Rajayyan

Queen Velu Nachiyar: First Women against British - Jekila Antony Raj

Perin Naoroji Captain - A Life Dedicated to India's Freedom

Family Background
Perin Naoroji Captain was the granddaughter of the scholar-politician Dadabhai Naoroji, the Grand Old Man of India. He was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress, and thrice its president. Naoroji was a British MP as a member of the House of Commons. 

Perin was born at Mandvi in Kutch, Gujarat on 12 October 1888. Her father Ardeshir was a doctor and Dadabhai Naoroji’s son. He died when she was yet five years old. Perin came from a large family of eight children, many of whom took up the nationalist cause. She married the eminent lawyer DS Captain in 1925. The couple did not have children. 

Perin Naoroji Captain

The Beginnings 

As a student at Sorbonne in Paris Perin met the nationalist Bhikaiji Cama who lived there in self-exile, and was a close associate of VD Savarkar. At the time Cama was deeply involved in trying for the release of Savarkar who was in prison at London for defying the British. Perin became a close friend of Kamala Nehru there. 

Later Perin and Savarkar attended the first Egyptian National Congress at Brussels. In London Perin and her sister Gosi worked with Polish organisations against Czarist Russia and learnt from a Polish revolutionary to use firearms and assemble bombs. This activity brought her under surveillance by the British, but that did not deter her. It is interesting that despite this early exposure to how violence was being used in other parts of the world Perin, Gosi and another sister Nurgis (the Captain sisters who married three brothers) turned completely to non-violence as the path to follow under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi.

In 1911 Perin returned to India. She met Mahatma Gandhi in 1915 and became convinced that his approach to securing India’s freedom from British rule was the right one. From 1920 she took to wearing khadi and began working for the nationalist cause in right earnest. In 1921 she was one of a group that established the Rashtriya Stree Sabha, a nationalist wormen’s organisation run on Gandhian principles.  

Public Life

The Civil Disobedience Movement

The Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 was a watershed moment in the history of the struggle for freedom in India. This movement was the method that the Indian National Congress decided was the means to attain Purna Swaraj (complete independence). The movement spread all over India. In Bengal Matangini Hazra was one of the prominent activists.

Perin Captain’s leadership qualities saw her playing an active role in many other areas, but the Civil Disobedience Movement was a defining episode in her public life.

Perin Captain addressing a political meeting on Chowpatty Beach in Bombay, 1930 Source: Women of India, Tara Ali Baig

Perin had had a long association of social and political work with stalwarts working in the field, well before the call for Civil Disobedience by Gandhi. Although from an influential family and well known to the leading lights of the era, Perin was a Congress worker who served the country by taking part in the big issues of the day. She was a hands-on political worker, did not shy away from the hurly-burly of public engagement and underwent multiple jail terms like most national leaders at the time.

During the Civil Disobedience Movement Perin with several other women under Desh Sevika Sangh played a prominent role in going from shop to shop in Bombay asking the owners not to sell imported cloth. Thus far the colonizers had crippled Indian weavers and the textile segment by exporting raw cotton and importing textiles into India. This boycott of British textiles in India was a direct hit at manufactured goods from Britain. The group also made continuous appeals to shoppers to participate in the Swadeshi movement and not buy imported fabric. In the first ten months of 1930 as many as 17,000 women were convicted for this activity. Closing shops was unlawful, and now shopkeepers were also arrested along with the women for boycott of foreign goods.

Her Arrest and its Aftermath

3rd July 1930 was the fourth day of Boycott Week in Bombay. There were crowds on the streets shouting boycott slogans, lorryloads of volunteers passing around flags and pamphlets to boycott British goods, house to house collection of Swadeshi pledges (2,00,000 pledges had been signed thus far). Mahatma Gandhi sent Perin a cable to “alert Congress to scrupulously avoid all violence, direct indirect passive or active” by any of the picketers. Perin replied that the instruction would be carried out. The Bombay Chronicle of 4 July 1930 reported the arrest of Perin that morning as she was setting out to the Congress office for a day’s work. She ‘cheerfully submitted to the officers’ who came to her home. 

Once the news of her arrest spread, the Municipal Corporation of Bombay adjourned, the Sugar Merchants’ Association passed an unanimous resolution to boycott British refined sugar,  and other merchant associations went with the boycott. 

The Municipal Corporation of Bombay passed a resolution that “Mrs. Captain was an accomplished lady and was a grand-daughter of the late Dadabhai Naoroji popularly known as the Grand Old Man of India. Mrs. Captain was a lady of sound and sober views and took her education in England. It was Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji who first started the idea of swaraj for India and Mrs. Captain took her education in England under the guidance of her revered grandfather. Self sacrifice and service were the mottos of her life and she was acting upto her honest conviction with courage.” 

When Perin and other women activists were released from prison, a mile long chain of about 5,000 women led by Sevikas welcomed them back. There were crowds of women reportedly 10,000 strong at both ends of the parade. Such active participation of women in the freedom struggle was in part possible because of the example and the leadership of Perin and her compatriots.  

The struggle for freedom - The Implications for women

The wholehearted participation of women gave as much a fillip to the women’s emancipation movement as it did to the struggle for freedom. The women volunteers in the non-cooperation and civil disobedience movements had a huge impact on the general perception about women’s capabilities. The menfolk were in prison so the women took charge. Women from the most aristocratic and orthodox families to the poorest participated. They took not just the British administration but even their own menfolk by surprise. This participation opened up avenues for social and political rights for women. 

As the Congress party was in the forefront of the struggle, Perin and her sisters were in the thick of all party activities in Bombay (now Mumbai). Perin became the first woman president of the Bombay Provincial Congress Committee in 1932. 

For better clarity of purpose and organisation, many smaller bodies were merged into the Gandhi Seva Sena of which Perin became the Honorary General Secretary, a post she held until her death. The Gandhi Seva Sena promoted khadi by selling rural and khadi products from their stores. One store is still in business in Mumbai selling herbal cosmetics, oil and pulses.

Khadi, also known as khaddar, was originally from Eastern India but eventually was woven by people from all over the country. It is handwoven cloth made of natural fibre, mainly cotton, but also to a lesser degree of silk and wool. It is traditionally woven with the spinning wheel, the charkha. During the freedom movement Khadi became the symbol of India’s resistance to imported cloth and of self-reliance. Today Khadi has had a rejuvenation and is also used by fashion designers in high-end clothing. 

Greater Responsibility

In 1937 the Congress Party came to power in eleven provinces in the provincial elections held under the Government of India Act 1935. These were Madras, The Central Provinces, Sindh, Punjab, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, NWFP, Assam, Bombay Presidency and United Provinces. This development raised expectations of a greater role for the party in the future and the need to prepare for it. The Indian National Congress formed a National Planning Committee with Jawaharlal Nehru as Chairman. Perin was member of the sub-committee ‘Women’s Role in a Planned Economy’ with several others who were active in the freedom movement and in women’s associations. The committee  debated and planned policy for issues such as women’s social, economic and political status, education, marriage, maternity and succession. The committee’s report was absolutely clear that the position of women should be on an equal footing to that of men in the India of the future. 

After India’s Independence

Perin was appointed Chief Commissioner of Bharat Guides and had a hand in voluntary social welfare work among young girls. She was honoured with the Padma Sri in 1954, the first batch of civil awards presented in independent India. 

Perin Naoroji Captain died in Jahangir Nursing Home, Pune in 1958.

Reference 

1. Gandhi, Women and the National Movement 1920-47 - Anup Taneja

2. Women in Satyagraha - Aparna Basu

3. Gandhi’s Passion. The life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi - Stanley Wolpert

4. The Bombay Chronicle, 4 July 1930

5. https://dinyarpatel.com/naoroji/family/