Abbakka Chowta - She fought the Portuguese

Abbakka Chowta

She Fought the Portuguese

Europeans in India

In the 1500s, after reports of the successful voyage to India of Portugal's Vasco da Gama reached home, European powers first came to India to trade for spices. Over the next few centuries they were sometimes granted trading rights by some local rulers, fought with yet some others in order to keep and expand their trading rights, and then finally asserted their political power. This progression from traders to rulers saw the Portuguese having to confront many Indian rulers who flatly refused to accept foreign suzerainty and fought to keep their autonomy.

Apart from the Portuguese, Indian rulers had to confront other Europeans also, such as the British, when they started to increase their influence from merely trading to interfering in the political arena. One such ruler who put up strong opposition was Velu Nachiyar of Sivaganga nearly a century after Abbakka Chowta.

Who was Abbakka?

Abbakka Chowta (1525 - 1580s) was one of the earliest opponents to European colonizers in India. She stood up to the Portuguese who constantly tried to take advantage of Indian rulers who could not present a united front. The only exception was the Samoothiri (Zamorin) of Calicut who forged a military alliance with her to fight the Portuguese.

Abbakka ruled from Ullal near Mangalore and was of the matrilinear Bunt community that lived in coastal Karnataka and Kerala. The Chowta were an ancient clan. One of the early Chowta rulers was a feudatory of Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire. The Chowta dynasty ruled from 1160 to 1833 CE, had 25 rulers of whom 11 were women. They were a Jain dynasty and ruled from Moodabidri. Ullal was a subsidiary capital. 

Ullal was situated at the mouth of the river Netravathi. This enabled ships to sail from the port of Ullal up the river into the interiors of the mainland, a huge advantage that the Portuguese wanted to capitalise by holding the port. They first tried to tax Abbakka in exchange for allowing shipping. Then they demanded an annual tribute from her. Other kingdoms had capitulated to Portuguese demands and they thought Abbakka would fall in line. But Abbakka had no intention of giving in to extortion.

The Portuguese in India

When the Portuguese first arrived in India the Vijayanagara empire was at its apex. The Portuguese built forts all along the west coast, ostensibly to safeguard their trading interests. They were in contention with local rulers who ruled under the protection of the Vijayanagara empire. The Portuguese were also trading Arabian steeds with the empire through Vijayanagara's ports in Goa and Mangalore, from where they shipped spices and the famed Indian textiles onward to Europe. The spice trade was so lucrative that it was vitally important for the Portuguese to control these ports. 

In a few decades, the Portuguese became extremely powerful with their new naval technology. They were the dominant force all along much of the trade route in the Indian Ocean and levied a charge on all trade using the route. This situation lasted for nearly a century until the British and Dutch started to assert themselves. 

After capturing Goa, and making it their headquarters the Portuguese turned their attention to other ports along the coast. They destroyed the Kapaleeswarar temple at Chennai. In Calicut, they defeated the powerful Zamorin. Daman and Mumbai were captured.

The Portuguese monopoly led to constant fighting with smaller Indian kingdoms that resented their overlordship. One such a kingdom was that of Ullal.

Abbakka’s mindset and fighting spirit

Abbakka and her sister Padumaladevi were brought up to be well-versed in the martial arts and in statecraft. Legend has it that Abbakka was particularly good at sword fighting and archery. When her sister who was the ruler of the Chowta dominions died without children, Abbakka succeeded her to the throne.

Drunk on their military and commercial successes thus far, the Portuguese gave no serious thought to the young queen of Ullal which is about 100 kms from Mangalore. They casually sent a small contingent in boats to capture and bring her to Goa. No boats returned.

Next, a huge fleet under Admiral Dom Alvaro da Silviera was despatched. A thoroughly defeated and much injured admiral returned, minus queen. 

Not to be outdone, the Portuguese sent yet another fleet, but again only a few troops straggled back.

In the meantime, the Portuguese captured Mangalore fort, which made it easier to attack Ullal. Soon another huge contingent under an experienced general Joao Peixoto sailed forth to nab the indomitable queen. 

Veera Rani Abbakka Devi
Special Cover issued 15.1 2003 at MANGALAPEX-2003

Winning tactics of the battle-hardened queen

When they reached the fort of Ullal, they found it deserted. Just as the Portuguese were about to declare victory, Abbakka and her loyal soldiers attacked the fort and decimated the opposition, killing the general. Not resting on her laurels, the very same day Abbakka was on the road to Mangalore and laid siege to the Mangalore fort. Her forces successfully captured the fort, killed Admiral Mascarenhas, had the Portuguese vacate the fort, and rode onwards 100 kms to Kundapura, and captured the Portuguese settlement there as well. 

Unexpected betrayal 

Going by the accounts of Abbakka’s exploits, it appears she would have continued to fight the good fight and rout the Portuguese at every turn. However, the stumbling block she faced, and perhaps didn’t expect, was her estranged husband Banga Lakshmappa Arasa who betrayed her to the Portuguese. This led to her capture and imprisonment. She died fighting in jail.  

Remembered in song and verse

There are three queens in the Chowta dynasty named Abbakka. The queen profiled here is Abbakka II who ruled from 1544 to 1582 and appears in Portuguese and local records. She is known for having fought the Portuguese several times and for her great naval victory against them. 

Abbakka's exploits and bravery made her famous in far-flung countries such as Persia (now called Iran) which was also fighting the Portuguese at the time. The Italian explorer Pietro Della Valle had heard so much of Abbakka from the Shah of Persia that he made sure to stop at Ullal to meet her on his travels. He was struck by her confidence yet simple lifestyle, focussing on the welfare of her subjects.

One of India's Inshore Patrol Vessels for the Indian Coastguard built at Hindustan Shipyard in Visakhapatnam is named Rani Abbakka.

Folklore and Yakshagana enactments have kept the legend and memory of Abbakka alive for nearly six centuries. They commemorate a never-say-die ruler who fought until her last breath.

Reference

1. http://flagsaudrapeaubandeirasandstamps.blogspot.com

2. Selections from The Travels of Sig. Pietro della Valle. Translated by G Havers.

3. Chowtas of Puttige Moodabidri - Dakshina Kannada Jilleya Prachina Itihasa by M Ganapathy Rao. Translated by Mahi Mulki. Tulupedia.com

Naikadevi

The Queen from Karnataka who Ruled Gujarat and Defeated Mohammad Ghori

The saga of Naikadevi’s regency (1175-1178 CE) during the rule of the Chalukya in Gujarat is one about her cool thinking, unfazed bravery and of not being taken in by the reputation of the enemy. The adversaries - Naikadevi and Mohammad Ghori of Ghor in Afghanistan - were equally determined to achieve their goals. Naikadevi was defending her kingdom, Ghori was bent on conquering it and had come all the way to Gujarat in the hopes of adding to his realm. However, the result of their encounter was a drubbing Ghori could not stomach.

Mohammad Ghori
Ghori made several incursions into India to expand territory.  He was not content with looting the fabled riches of India but also tried to conquer. He was defeated multiple times over the years by defending rulers but never let that hold back his ambitions. The factor in Ghori’s favour was the lack of unity amongst the rulers of various kingdoms in India who would not present a common front against him.

Rudramadevi - A Queen True to Her Calling

Rudramadevi

A Queen True To Her Calling

Rudramadevi (reign 1260 - 1290 CE) of the powerful Kakatiya dynasty ruled from her capital Orugallu, present day Warangal in Telangana.  The area was naturally rich in diamonds and was throughout the target of several attacks and invasions by vying rival kings seeking to expand their territories and increase their wealth.

Early Life

Rudramadevi was brought up like a boy by her father Ganapathideva who had two daughters to succeed him. Ganapathideva was a very prominent monarch of his line. At the end of a largely successful reign, he apprehended an attack by Jatavarman Sundara Pandian I from near Madurai. The Kakatiya empire needed a strong front to defeat this threat. Rudramadevi was trained in the art of war under her guru Sivadevayya. He coached her thoroughly in planning her campaigns, tactical moves on the battlefield and managing the enemies' moves. She was given a thorough grounding in politics and administration. She was taught the fine arts - music, dance and literature to prepare her to be a good administrator. She toured the kingdom, meeting officials and people to gain first hand knowledge. 

Rudramadevi could also draw upon the formidable experience of her father who had ruled for nearly 60 years. He eased her into the battlefield and the court so she could prove her mettle and gain confidence. Above all she learnt to keep the welfare of her subjects as her primary goal.

On the advise of his councillors, Ganapathideva performed the putrika ceremony which invested Rudramadevi with the authority of a male heir. She assumed the name of Rudraraja from the age of fourteen and wore male attire as co-ruler. Shortly thereafter, life threw up challenges that the young queen had to face head-on. Even as she fended off Sundara Pandian the Kakatiya kingdom weakened, her father took ill, and soon died.

A Fight to Retain the Kingdom

Rudramadevi then took independent charge. Soon after, she faced rebellion from family members and nobles clearly disgruntled at a female ruler on the throne. When Rudramadevi and her daughter were visiting a temple at Mogalicharla, the fort of Warangal was forcibly occupied by the rebels. She crushed the uprising with the help of citizens, courtiers and troops that remained loyal to her. Rudramadevi had her work cut out keeping the kingdom intact against invaders such as the Yadavas of Devagiri who laid siege to her capital for fifteen days. She defeated the Yadavas and captured several of their troops who were later released after a ransom was paid. The Odia and the Chola who were looking for a chance to take over were also defeated. Rudramadevi not only proved that she was a good warrior but was also able to instil awe in the minds of her enemies for her personal bravery and her tactical intelligence. She was a feared adversary.

Naganika - The Empress Who Wrote in Stone

Naganika

The Empress Who Wrote in Stone

Queen Naganika (also referred to as Nayanika) was of the mighty Satavahana empire, one of the biggest kingdoms in Indian history - you probably have faint recollections of reading about the dynasty in History class at school. Unless you are a Indian history or archaeology afficionado, the name may not ring a bell. But at one time, in the 2nd century BC, theirs was one of the pre-eminent empires of the Indian mainland. Historians believe that the Satavahana empire included present-day Telangana and Maharashtra, and at times northern Karnataka, parts of Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra. Roman sources mention that it comprised several villages and 30 walled towns. The army was huge with 1,000 elephants. The Satavahana developed the port of Machilipatnam (also known as Masulipatnam) at the mouth of the River Krishna. It was a great natural harbour on the Bay of Bengal. The Satavahana connected Machilipatnam on the east coast and Sopara on the Arabian Sea on the west coast by a land route across the kingdom spanning the width of the Indian mainland.

The Satavahana capital was Pratishthana (modern Paithan in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra) in western India. Naganika was consort of Satakarni. He ruled over the vast area south of the Narmada, traditionally called the Dakshinapatha region, for about 56 years. Naganika was very deeply involved in the governance of the kingdom. She was born in the powerful Amgiya or Ambhiya family who were called Maharathi (warriors with mastery over all forms of combat and weapons).

The Satavahana kingdom was based in the Godavari valley and their rule lasted from 221 BC to 

102 CE. The exact dates are disputed by historians, but this period is generally accepted. Satakarni twice performed the Ashwamedha Yagna (the horse sacrifice), a fact that indicates that his undisputed power was acknowledged by neighbouring rulers.

During the Ashwamedha Yagna, a specially chosen horse was allowed to run free for a fixed 

period of time (one year or half a year, depending on sources) outside the boundaries of the 

empire, followed by a retinue who made sure it was well looked after. If the ruler of the territory in which the horse ran accepted the overlordship of the ruler who had sent the horse, he would 

welcome it into his kingdom. If he challenged it, however, he would have to fight the army 

accompanying the horse. Upon defeat he would have to accept that he was the vassal of the ruler who sent the horse. It follows that the Ashwamedha Yagna was performed only by the truly powerful kings and the very fact that one performed it was a known mark of power.

Naneghat Pass stone steps
(www.commons.wikipedia.org
Author - Pratikbuttepatil52)

Naganika lived more than 2000 years ago. Apart from sources such as the Puranas and other 

texts that mention that era, we know of Naganika because of an inscription in her name in a cave in Naneghat, a mountain pass in the Western Ghats which links the road from Pratishthana and other parts of the Deccan to ports on India’s west coast, i.e. the Konkan, and to the ancient town of Junnar, an important political and trading centre. Recently a silver coin with the names of Satakarni and Naganika inscribed on it was found near Junnar.

Vaidarbhi Style of Sanskrit Poetry

Vaidarbhi style of Sanskrit poetry

This is a small note on the Vaidarbhi style of Sanskrit poetry used by poets such as the queen-poet Gangadevi, the very eminent poet Kalidasa and many others. I thought it would be interesting to sketch a very basic idea of what exactly this style of poetry is all about.

Vaidarbhi is a style or riti mentioned in Bharata’s Natyashastra.

Not for nothing is this style known as Samagraguna Vaidarbhi (Vaidarbhi with all the guna, poetic excellences). Such a composition is believed to be harmonious to the ear and to the senses. A composition rendered in the Vaidarbhi style has all these guna, attributes - 

Ojas (compact word construction and deep meaning), 

Prasada (no terseness of expression and the ability to convey meaning),
Slesha (smooth word flow and the binding of thoughts with harmony and sequence),
Samata (uniformity and matching of ideas between the beginning and the end), 
Samadhi (construction of syllables beginning with long and heavy sounds descending to short and light sounds), 
Madhurya (use of uncompounded words), 
Saukumarya (smoothness of expression even to convey unpalatable ideas), 
Udarata (absence of vulgarity), 
Arthavyakti (clarity of expression), 
Kanti (fresh word usage [word use] and the imparting of a glow to the composition [sense use]).

The styles in Sanskrit poetry were named after their region of origin. Thus Vaidarbhi, Gaudi, Panchali etc. indicate these styles originated from the areas of Vidarbha, Gauda and Panchala. 

To go into slightly more detail -

Vaidarbi uses no compound words. It employs compactness. Evenness of syllable structure and symmetry are its hallmarks.

Gaudi’s characteristic is compound high-sounding words, alliteration and verbosity.

Panchali employs middling compounds.

Reference -

Sanskrit Criticism by VK Chari

Gangadevi, The poet-queen

GANGADEVI

The poet-queen

Gangadevi is the author of Madhura Vijaya (also named Virakamparaya Charita). She was the queen of Kumara Kampana Raya of Vijayanagara who conquered Madurai in 1371 and represented the empire at Kanchipuram. It is speculated that the poem was composed approximately between 1375 and 1400 CE.

What is interesting about this poet is that her royal status gave her access to an education not easily available to all women at the time. She was royalty by birth and by marriage. Her guru was the eminent poet Viswanatha. Her learning resulted in a breadth of vision that enabled her to write poetry of a high standard. Gangadevi was well-read as is obvious from her salutations and eulogies at the beginning of Madhura Vijaya.

Style

Madhura Vijaya is nine cantos long composed in 522 verses written in the Vaidarbhi style in Grantha characters. This class of Sanskrit poetry is considered to be a complete style since it requires all guna (attributes) to be invoked, wherein puns and other rhetorical embellishments are absent and no terse words are used. There are no long compound words and alliterations. Instead, soft and melodious syllables convey the sense of the rasa (emotion, mood). Simple and lucid phrases are characteristic of this style. The expertise of the poet lies in being able to incorporate all the guna, to a greater or lesser degree depending on the rasa to be conveyed, and yet bringing the entire work under the umbrella of one unified theme.

WHY HISTORICAL FICTION?

Most people first encounter History at school. And if your school days were anything like mine, History was the one subject the class hated. The lessons were just a litany of names, dates and wars. There was no concept of linking events, of discussing ideas that culminated in events we were learning about, no talk of the impact of events, no whys or wherefores or therefores.    

History was just a part of the curriculum that had to be studied to pass exams. Dry as dust.

Then I stumbled upon Historical Fiction, and my attitude towards History and its study changed drastically. To be frank, I started reading Historical Fiction as a youngster primarily because of the gorgeous book covers that beckoned enticingly in the poky neighbourhood lending library. And I was hooked. I discovered there was more to History than just the big and famous names.  The little guy deserved as much time in the sun as the big guns, and had very interesting stories to tell about the world around him. Because very often, although well known personalities brought about drastic changes, it was the lesser known folks in their thousands who kept societies and cultures going and continue today to be the warp and weft of the fabric of civilizations. Without them, there would be nobody to fight the wars and nobody for the big-name kings and queens to rule.

This undercurrent of lives lived inspite of cataclysmic events happening is best realised by Historical Fiction. We all know that the most long-remembered lessons are learnt through stories. And that in the human story there’s nothing new under the Sun. Human nature has not changed much down the centuries, actions can be studied, reactions gauged and even predicted without much difficulty, if we only care to take note. That is to say, very often behaviour and consequences fall into patterns. We would be wise to study and assimilate this.

Also, the reader perhaps identifies more with the common man upon whom circumstances have dropped unfair and unforeseen events. He has no choice but to grit his teeth and get on with extricating himself. So, a reader in the 21st century can easily put herself in the shoes of merchant in 10th century CE whose merchandise faces hurdles being released by customs in a foreign country due to language incomprehension or new tax laws that were incorrectly communicated. Happens. Even today, the age of the Internet.  

A peculiarity of History taught in schools was that each of these topics was taught in a bubble of its own. There was no attempt at any sort of interconnectivity - for example, what was happening at this time in other parts of India? How did the actions or policies of one ruler affect life in another part of the country? Why did this ruler wage war against another, collaborating with the next? The human element was missing in our lessons. Which was rather odd considering history is ultimately the story of human beings and their actions and their inactions. Even as a student I always felt that an overall picture of what was going on within India’s landmass as well as kingdoms abroad at the particular point in time would have been a better way to learn of the times, of ensuring context to what we learnt. My thinking on these lines was validated decades later when I stumbled across works that reflected ‘history-from-the-ground-up’.

Only once in a while, despite the Delhi-centric tilt of our history text books (more on that later) we were offered tantalizing tidbits, a one-line throwaway snippet of Elizabeth I’s ambassador from the court of St James visiting Akbar’s court, of being hugely impressed about the wealth he saw in India and how nothing he offered the Mughal came anywhere close to what Akbar gifted in return to Elizabeth I. That felt good! The English Ambassador had nothing equivalent to gift? It was the first inkling I had that India in the 1600s was nothing like what we were seeing around us in the 1900s. India was apparently the destination for all trading countries. Really?

Or that of gold and precious gems being sold in the open bazaar at Hampi in the time of Krishna Deva Raya, the greatest ruler India saw in the middle ages. Hampi was the capital of the immensely rich and powerful Vijayanagara empire, a city teeming with foreigners from all over the world come to make a deal that would set them up for life at home because they could then curry favour with their rulers.

Or that centuries earlier Ashoka famously turned away from warfare after the massacre at Kalinga and sent out emissaries all over Asia after his conversion to Buddhism. The one question that always arose in my mind after reading this was that it was all very well Ashoka renouncing warfare (good for him!), but that did not mean his neighbours harboured such pacific thoughts. How then did he prevent their military adventurism? How was he able to keep his vow of not waging war until the end of his reign? Did he disband his army after his conversion? How did he never have the need to defend his kingdom? I never found the answers in my textbooks.

The first book of historical fiction I read offered a hitherto unknown option. If academic history did not bother with the niggly bits that I wanted answered, fiction with a basis in history would do. The book that started it all for me was He Sailed with Captain Cook by Charles Borden when I went sailing along with Cook’s crew from my home as a ten year old. Captain Cook and his escapades were never featured in the history I learnt at school but the book was such an immersion into sailing, European discovery and conquest of far lands that I could have sat for any exam on it.

A few years later The Persian Boy by Mary Renault was another eyeopener on Alexander and his military conquests, his army, the Greek society and his permissive times.

All this left me wondering as a school girl if Indian history had no equivalent stories that would be great rollicking reads or why nobody was writing them! I was wrong on the first count. Indian history is replete with stories that show human strength and fraility, on how just one person’s bravery or knavery turned events on their heads and had unimaginable repurcussions, of quiet quotidien lives lived within the parameters of society, of craftsmen and warriors, of women sages and women warriors. It’s all there, and more. We only need to start looking.

As to my wondering why nobody was writing them, they are now. Historical fiction based in India is alive and kicking. India is a treasure trove of stories begging to reach a wider audience who need to hear about their land for validation, warts and all. For far, far too long we have been blasé about our culture and history. Not any more.